Dealing with Difficult Clients and Opposing Essay

The State Bar of California and the Office of Section Education and Meeting Services are approved State Bar of California MCLE providers. Points of view or opinions expressed in these pages are those of the speaker(s) and/or author(s). They have not been adopted or endorsed by the State Bar of California’s Board of Governors and do not constitute the official position or policy of the State Bar of California. Nothing contained herein is intended to address any specific legal inquiry, nor is it a substitute for independent legal research to original sources or obtaining separate legal advice regarding specific legal situations. Dealing with Difficult People by Steven G. Mehta There seems to be no shortage of difficult people in the practice of law. Perhaps there is something in the water, or perhaps it is the economy. But no matter where you go, difficult clients or opposing counsel seem to be popping up out of nowhere. Indeed, take the case of the hypothetical mediator who had a recent encounter with an extremely difficult party who wanted to sabotage the mediation from the very beginning. The client insulted her own attorney, wouldn’t let the other parties speak, accused her attorneys and every attorney in the world of having no heart or emotions and being liars and accused the mediator of lying about the merits of the case. To top off her venom, she had already reported her attorneys to the bar and at every turn was trying to avoid resolving the case. At one point, one of her attorneys walked out of the mediation. In short – she was the mother of all nightmare parties. Unfortunately for mo st attorneys and mediators, they have met this type of client/party at some point in their career. Therefore, it is critical to understand how to deal with such difficult clients and opposing counsel. First, this article will identify some of the different types of difficult clients. Second, it will discuss general strategies on how to deal with difficult people. Finally, it will provide specific tools on how to deal with difficult clients or opposing counsel. The following are the most common types of clients that can walk into your office. Usually, this angry client will be very hostile towards you and others. Your staff may dread dealing with this person. Sometimes, it is unclear why the person is so angry. Be assured that this person’s anger will only get worse during litigation. Moreover, some or all of that anger will spill over to you and your staff. †¢ The vengeful or zealous client. Typically a vengeful or zealous client will be vengeful about many things and not just the cause for what you are being hired. This person will usually make it known that they are bringing â€Å"the fight† based on principle. Many times this desire for vengeance will overcom e any sense of rationality. †¢ The obsessed client. This client cannot stop thinking about the case, the injury, the wrong, and what can be done to address this problem. This client could easily call you several times a day to make sure that you are on top of the case. You could likely get too much information rather than too little. †¢ The emotionally needy client. This client is often emotionally fragile and insecure. Many times this person will be in a co-dependent relationship and is seeking to embroil you in another co-dependent relationship. This person may find it very difficult to make decisions. Mediation Offices of Steve G. Mehta 25124 Springfield Court, Ste. 250, Valencia, CA 91355 Tel: (661) 284-1818 Fax: 661 284-1811 Email: Steve@mehtamann.com Offices: Valencia & Los Angeles ÂThe angry or hostile client. †¢ The dishonest or deceitful client. Often this client will not tell you all the information they know to be relevant or will tell you the wrong information. †¢ The unresponsive client. This client often wants the appearance of an attorney who is providing independent advice but in reality doesn’t want your advice. This client simply wants you to rubber stamp his or her actions. Often, this client will reject your advice because it is contrary to her own. As stated by Sheila Blackford, author of Recognizing Difficult Client Types, â€Å"Clients often come to lawyers to determine the consequences of actions they have already taken or have decided to take.† Often these clients don’t want you as a lawyer, but are â€Å"forced† by others or circumstance to hire a lawyer. Beware that just as they are unwilling to accept your advice, they may also be unwilling to pay the bill for advice they do not want. Finally, there may be a combination of these t ypes of clients. You could end up with an angry, vengeful client that is obsessed. If that is your client, turn in the other direction and run. If this ends up being your opposing counsel, then in the famous words of the Robot in Lost in Space, â€Å"Danger, Will Robinson, Danger!† Now that difficult clients have been identified, it is helpful to look at some strategies that attorneys can use to combat both difficult or nightmare clients and opposing counsel. First, start out by examining yourself. Everyone can be difficult to deal with at times. Before you can determine whether the other person is the problem, make sure that you aren’t the problem. Are you over overreacting? Are you having a bad day? Why is this person affecting you? What buttons of yours are being pushed, and why? After examining whether you may be part of the communication problem or that you have misinterpreted the comments made towards you, then you will have a better idea as to whether this person is being offensi ve or difficult or whether it is you. In examining yourself, it is important to understand that everybody has an instinctual reaction to act when attacked. This is hardwired in our brains from the stone age days where we had to either react to a threat (fight) or flee from the threat (flight). In modern days, the threat is usually not physical, yet the body still gives issues the same fight or flight reaction. People end up having an immediate need to affirmatively right a wrong or injustice against them. More likely, a person can end up wanting to immediately defend his or her actions or position. This is partially because the attack against a person is affecting his or her internal observation of self worth that person’s standing in the community or amongst his peers. Often people feel the need to show that they are correct and that the other person is wrong. This knee jerk reaction, however, can do more damage than good. Indeed, when having such a reaction, most people perceive that it makes them feel good; but shortly thereafter, they regret having said and done what they did in the heat of the moment. The strategies listed hereafter are not in chronological order; but instead are different strategies that can be employed depending on the situation. First, PRESS THE PAUSE BUTTON. In sports after a particularly difficult call by the referee the commentators will press the pause button on the action and show an instant replay at a slower pace. This tool is not just beneficial in sports. The pause button can be very powerful in helping to deal with difficult people. The length of the pause can depend on the situation. In the case of a minor issue, you might treat the matter with a small pause, giving yourself just enough time to think. Indeed, this is exactly what attorneys tell their clients in preparation for deposition. After the question is asked, wait for a brief second before answering. That pause can help to avoid making a huge blunder by saying the wrong thing. In other cases, you might need a longer pause. You could simply ask for a five-minute break or ask to use the restroom; whatever excuse you need to give to allow yourself a moment to think. Once you have hit the pause button, you can then consider the comment or action, its impact on the scheme of things, and what you might want to do in response. Take for example, the case of one mediator. In one particularly nasty mediation, when a party insulted the mediator’s integrity to its foundation, the mediator simply took a moment to pause in the mediation to let the sting of the initial insult pass. Then he asked take a five-minute break while he digested the information just conveyed. Then when he returned, he simply moved the mediation forward as if the comment had never been made. Once the party realized that she couldn’t get a reaction to her insulting comments, she was forced to stop making them. Another rule to consider is that â€Å"You don’t have to win every argument.† As noted above, often the reason a person jumps into the fray is because she wants to prove that she is right. This is difficult for lawyers because they are trained to advocate their position. However, proving that you are right with a difficult person can simply entrench that person even further; and even though you may feel that you are right, the other person will never agree. Sometimes the best response is to let it go and have the satisfaction that you know that you are right. Another important strategy is to employ ACTIVE LISTENING skills. An important sign of respect for another person is to actually listen to what that other person has to say. How many times have you been in a situation where someone has said:â€Å"You aren’t listening to me.† One of the most powerful tools in addressing difficult people is using active listening skills. Active listening skills include avoiding any distractions – such as that pesky Blackberry – and really trying t o understand the other person’s positions and concerns. All too often attorneys are already working on their response while the other person speaks. clarify what you understand about the other person’s statements. Ask whether your restatement is an accurate version of what the other person feels. Sometimes, depending on the person, you might mirror some of the nonverbal cues the person displays. Studies show that by mirroring non-verbal gestures, the other person will feel more connected with you. Ask questions that elicit more information from the other person. Depending on the person, you may have to spend a considerable amount of time using active listening skills. However, at the end of such a process you might find that the difficult person is much less difficult. It is also important when dealing with difficult people that you try not to give that person an excuse to be even more difficult. As such, when you communicate your concerns or feelings try to avoid using terms that target the other person, such as â€Å"you† phrases which target the other person’s behavior. Instead, talk about your experience s using â€Å"I† phrases, such as â€Å"I was upset when I heard the comments.† This approach helps to avoid attacking the other person or accusing the other person of something. Match communication styles. Generally, people fall into three categories: Audio learners, visual learners, or Kinesthetic (or touch) learners. You can tell which style a person favors by the language she uses. Think about whether the other person is using visual language such as color, seeing, and pictures or whether the person is using audio language such as hearing, sounds, vibrations, etc. Then try to match their language by using words that relate to those styles in your responses. For example, with a visual person you might comment, â€Å"I see your position,† but with an audio person you might say, â€Å"I hear what you are saying.† If the difficult person puts you in a position where you are required to respond, ask that person what exactly he is upset about. This will help to demonstrate that you are interested in solutions rather arguing. This strategy then can allow you to incorporate active listening once the person explains to you their concern (irrational or otherwise). Finally, if after an unreasonable attack against you, consider agreeing with a small portion of the statement. This can accomplish several things. First, it can help you avoid jumping in to defend yourself and continuing the unhealthy communication. More importantly, however, it can allow you to create something in common with the angry person and may appease their irrational anger. These general strategies can be very useful in dealing with all types of difficult people. But what about the difficult client or lawyer? There are several specific strategies to work with these individuals. First, there is a saying that the best client you will ever have is the one that you don’t take. In other words, sometimes it is far better to not take a client than to take a client and have nightmares wondering if you are going to be called by the Bar or se rved with an unjustified malpractice suit. matter how lucrative, are just not worth the risk and the stress. Many times if the client is difficult as a prospective client, that person will only get worse during the representation. If you don’t have the luxury of refusing to represent a certain person, establish boundaries. You can limit your involvement to specific interactions. You can also establish boundaries for when and how many calls you might take on a particular topic. One lawyer has a written guideline for all of his clients which establishes what the lawyer will and won’t do in the legal process, including responding to calls on the weekend. Third, you can establish specific requirements for your clients in the very first meeting and before you sign the retainer. Along those same lines, one of the major frustrations for attorneys is clients that have unreasonable expectations of the result and process. By providing the clients with a detailed explanation of what they can expect, and what you expect, y ou can minimize difficult communications. This principle can also work very effectively with opposing counsel. If counsel is abusive to you or your staff, you can set down ground rules for future communications. If those ground rules are not honored, then you can limit your communications. For example, one lawyer lets the opposing counsel know that if there are any further abusive phone calls, then all further interactions will have to be in writing. Moreover, if the opposing counsel persists in his or her actions, then all writings will not be by fax or email, and will only be accepted and given in the mail. One lawyer has gone so far as to require that all conferences be videotaped. Unfortunately due to the nature of the practice of law which involves conflict scenarios, there will continue to be difficult people in the practice of law. There are many strategies for dealing with difficult people. This article has only addressed a few of them. However, armed with these strategies, it is possible to substantially decrease the number of difficult interactions and the stress related to those interactions. Research sources: http://www.abanet.org/lpm/magazine/articles/v36/is4/pg41.shtml Pyschology Today. http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200609/dealing-difficultpeople Steven G. Mehta, Esq. is a full time mediator based in Los Angeles with offices in Downtown and Valencia and specializes in emotionally complex cases involving elder law, injury cases, and employment disputes. He can be reached through his website at www.stevemehta.com. Mediation is a tool to help people recognize their responsibility for things, to negotiate a solution and to move on with their lives. My role is to allow them to present their side, to ensure that they are heard and to help them achieve a resolution.† What, exactly, is Mehta’s magic? Understanding human dynamics. â€Å"Anyone can learn the law,† he points out. â€Å"Understanding people is where my expertise lies. There are two sides and two emotions to every story. I care about them both.† But there’s a huge chasm between understanding human dynamics and getting two frustrated, angry parties to agree. Mehta is very definitive about what it takes to bridge that gap and bring the parties together. â€Å"My ability to connect with each participant and develop trust is absolutely essential,† he says. â€Å"Then, I need to be creative about solutions. Finding a mutually satisfying settlement is as much art as it is law. Finally, I never give up. Nothing is impossible. The impossible just takes a little longer.† In the end, there is almost always an answer. When it’s over, it’s a solution the parties chose. â€Å"They feel empowered. Grateful. Relieved,† Mehta says. â€Å"Most importantly, they feel free to move on with their lives.† Now, that’s a masterful job.

Pastrol Cycle Essay

The incident that I am going to be talking about, involves a year 10 female pupil. This member of the youth was always willing to participate in activities, willing to help at the end of the sessions or events that were being organised. Unfortunately, this member always wanted something far greater. An achievement that she could say I did that! I poured my heart into that! Over the next few weeks, I began to see a change in this member. I felt like she was giving up on helping us as thou she did not see the point no more and could not see things progressing. Her attitude towards other people also seems to change as thou she was jealous of other people who were helping out, or other people who were getting bigger jobs in the youth. Thou she never asked or came forward asking for a bigger part (confidence?) I did not know what to do with youth, I knew she wanted more and I could see that but did not know what path to take. I decided to talk with other leaders and they mentioned about the next youth camp coming up later in the year. Thou it sounded like a great idea I was concerned she was not ready or confident enough in her self to take up such a huge challenge, because she was new to the club. However, am I then putting my own fear in front of her ambition? Was I then going to put a halt on something so life changing? As a leader of the youth club, I knew it was in within my power to change something and act upon it. I decide to confront my own personal worries and pluck up the courage to talk to her guardian, I mentioned about the camping trip that the youth club was participating in, and some youth members there was an option to join in the service crew. I went to mention some of the roles that they could undertake and what was involved in being a service crewmember. At first, this guardian was concerned and unsure about sending their daughter to do something far greater than helping at the youth club, but slowly came to the understand that this could be the break and confidence boast that they needed. With her willingness to send her daughter to camp to be a member of the service crew, I decided to get to know this individual more and at the club. I would sit between her and her fellow friends and chat and listen to see what hobbies they enjoyed, activities in the club and what they wanted in life, there goals, but this member was also shy or scared of opening up to me. Over many weeks and recent talks, she became more confining in me. She was able to talk and share feeling about what she wanted to do in life. From this, I could see that there was great potential for this youth to gain a wider aspect in life’s achievements. It reminded me of me when I was growing up in a youth club, how I was shy and sacred of new things. How I felt alone and nobody understood me. How I felt that I was being ignore for being good or helpful. From my pass experience of my own life in a youth setting, I decided to draw on the willingness of her kindness and slowly over time got this member to open up more; I gave her an opportunity of being a my personal helper in the club. So that later on in life she could later work her way up if she so choose to and become a trainee leader. Sometimes it felt wrong for me to picking on a just one member but never did I feel like the youth were against me. I felt like they understood the situation and I also began seeing changes in the circle of youth I was interested in, they were also showing a willingness to lead a helping hand. It was like the first stepping-stone. Not only was I was helping one member of youth but her circle to. I decide to look up self-confidence in the bible for this member of the youth and maybe for my self as well. I found a passage that goes on to say: There is no fear in love, but perfect love casts out fear; for fear has to do with punishment, and whoever fears has not reached perfection in love (NRSV 1John 4:18) This passage begins to answer the question on how much God loves us and believing in him is so important. Fear and worry signal that we are not yet perfect in our belief in how much God loves us. If we believe that the God of infinite power and wisdom loves no one in the universe more than us, what do we have to fear or worry about? We believe in how much He loves us, and then we know the trial is for our own good. Because of His love, we should know that a trial is not just an arbitrary act without rhyme or reason. Because He is God, it cannot be an accidental circumstance happening without His awareness or concern. From reading this passage I felt that this member needed a little pushing, I started to understand that fear should not stop no one in gaining something so huge in life. So I decided to mention about the service crew team at the campsite. I was waiting to hear silence or the answer of I will think about it, but instead I got a strong yes! There was no umm or r-ing it was as if they had gained so much confidence and needed something more. I felt a sense of achievement that I had changed, accepted, and understood this member. I am glad that I did not over look this person and gave up my own time to help them. I am glad that I listened to the other leaders and looked to the bible for inspiration. Looking back and reflecting on the way that I acted to this situation, I would say that there were grey areas. For example, I decided to talk with the guardian first maybe that was not the correct way or best way of things. I think I should have just gone straight to individual form day one and started a conversation to try to understand there difficulties and reasoning behind events. The reason for my thinking is because I am a youth leader and my job is there to get to know and understand individual needs. Thou granted this was my first time of acting on something, something I thought needed action and doing about but still I did play the safe card. Thou on another hand I am extremely happy that I achieved this person particular goal and changed them so great that even other leaders and parents congratulated me. That this person is now so confident they do believe that fear is no object that fear is just a simple word. However, it was just not one person I changed. Her circle of friends also changed and that was because I stepped into that friendship circle, and I now know and understand more than one person. I feel like I have personally changed to, because I would say for me it was a learning curve, and probably I grew in confidences to. Why, because I showed my self that I can do things for my self and others. Those other leaders do not have to do my work for me. From this experience, I decided to act more upon events in the club that if something did not feel or seems right I would investigate more into. From this I also feel that I have helped changed other members of the club and hopefully one day they will do the same for others. My goal is that one day the youths that I helped will help other in similar situations, and I happy to conclude that this member I mentioned about it now a trainee leader of our youth club, so now she can share her own experiences with other members of the club.

MLE Assignment Essay

1. Ethically, is brain death not as final as cardiac death? Why or why not? Brain death is final. There is no coming back from it, ever. Neurons die, and the brain ceases to function. Permanently. With cardiac death, we can sometimes use medication or electricity to resume heart function. A systole (no electrical activity in the heart) can sometimes be reversed if the underlying cause of the problem can be treated (such as severe electrolyte abnormalities, or severe hypothermia). 2. How does the Prudent Person Rule apply in this case? The prudent rule or â€Å"reasonable man† law dictates that a person act in a manner that is consistent with the skills, logic, resources, and knowledge that an average lay-person may have. In medicine, it would apply to a patient in that they are required to take all steps that are reasonable and prudent to affect a positive outcome in their treatment. In other words, you would be expected to follow doctor’s orders, do all routine follow up and home therapy, use reasonable judgments and so on. So the answer here is, yes – this does apply to the case because this young girl came into the hospital for a simple surgery removing her tonsils, adenoids, and extra sinus tissues. And was shortly determined brain dead after beginning to bleed profusely, and went through cardiac arrest, meaning the serious dysfunction of an organ. 3. In your opinion, could this tragedy have been prevented? If so, how? In this case I really don’t know the specifics of this particular case, because there are so many missing pieces between the pre-op and post-op that I’m unsure of how this actually happened to determine if this tragedy could have been prevented. In some cases the parents have to be completely informed as to the ramifications of a situation before making a final decision.

Women are Still Treated like a Minority in the Workplace Personal Statement

Women are Still Treated like a Minority in the Workplace - Personal Statement Example And progressively higher numbers of women are taking part-time positions which are associated with lower pay rates than men, even after other dynamics have been factored in. Women’s employment opportunities are highly concentrated in traditionally female-dominated careers which are usually the lower paid. Women continue to be under-represented in the better-paid positions within occupations. Qualified women are typically deprived of top-level employment in corporate organizations, but instead of calling it what it is, discrimination and sexism, this form of disproportionate treatment are called the ‘glass ceiling’ effect. Women certainly are expected to have to perform more work a man to maintain the same pay rate and a similar position. Despite greater than ever levels of labor market involvement, women are still not uniformly represented, particularly at senior positions within organizations. This includes those corporations that cater expressly to women consume rs. This plainly observable fact of business has been termed ‘the glass ceiling.’ The phrase refers to the â€Å"invisible, artificial barriers that prevent qualified individuals from advancing within their organization and reaching full potential† (Hewitt & Roche, 2003).

Antibiotic resistance Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Antibiotic resistance - Research Paper Example In other words, it is "resistance of a microorganism to an antimicrobial medicine to which it was previously sensitive" (WHO, 2011). According to WHO (2011), more than 440,000 new cases of multidrug resistant tuberculosis emerge every year, resulting significant morbidity and mortality (David et al, 2008). To date, antibiotic resistance has been reported in more than 64 countries (WHO, 2011). Antibiotic resistance occurs due to genetic alteration of the organism and transferring of the altered genes between the organisms. The transfer can occur through transduction, conjugation or transformation. Antibiotic resistance is a major public health challenge globally because; resistant microorganisms fail to respond to medical therapy and result in prolonged illness and sometimes death. It hampers the control of infectious diseases. According to WHO (2011), "many infectious diseases risk becoming uncontrollable and could derail the progress made towards reaching the targets of the health-r elated United Nations Millennium Development Goals set for 2015. " Other than these, antibiotic resistance also contributes to increased cost to health care and jeopardizes various health gains to the society. In this research article, various strategies to prevent emergence of antibiotic resistance will be discussed through review of suitable literature. The article will also discuss about causes and mechanism of antibiotic resistance and consequences of antibiotic resistance. Literature review According to Williams and Sefton (1999), prevention of antibiotics resistance consists of mainly 2 parts, one is prevention of acquisition of strains that are antibiotics resistent and interruption of the various mechanisms by which antibiotic resistant organisms can spread from person to person. Antibiotic resistance mainly occurs due to use of antibiotics both in humans and animals. The greater the duration of exposure of the antibiotic, the greater is the risk of development of resistance to that particular antibiotic. The resistance occurs irrespective of the severity of the need to administer antibiotics. Thus antibiotic resistance is a major problems for clinicians. Antibiotics are often used for rearing animals for consumption purpose and this is a significant cause for antibiotic resistance. As far as use in humans is concerned, these drugs are administered to patients for both necessary and unnecessary causes and this contributes to drug resistance. In several countries, antibiotics are available over the counter and patients use them without medical advice. According to Costelloe et al (2010), even one single dose of antibiotic can contribute to resistance to that antibiotic upto one year. Arnols and Straus (2005) opined that inappropriate antibiotic prescription is the most common cause of antibiotic resistance and this can occur when the patient insists on antibiotics, when the physician prescribes antibiotics either for caution against medical legal issues , or because he has not time to explain why antibiotics must not be administered or the physician prescribes the antibiotics because of poor judgement regarding the cause of infection. According to a study by McNulty et al (2007), 33 percent of individuals feel that antibiotics have treated their common cold effectively. With such ignorance both from public and professional side, erratic prescription and intake of antibiotics

Determinants of Plasma Retinol and Beta-Carotene Levels Statistics Project

Determinants of Plasma Retinol and Beta-Carotene Levels - Statistics Project Example The statistical analysis demonstrated that for this showed that sex was significant at the .000 level. Additionally, the research should that the strength of the connection was .045. Regarding the first hypotheses, the research showed conclusively that the null hypothesis could be rejected. As such, the research hypothesis -- Sex would not have the same impact on the occurrence of Plasma Retinol (ng/ml) levels as it does on Plasma beta-carotene (ng/ml) levels – was accepted. Regarding the second hypothesis, the research showed that the null hypothesis could not be rejected and that research hypothesis that a correlation exists between the occurrence of Plasma Retinol (ng/ml) and Plasma beta-carotene (ng/ml) in the body could be rejected. The first test that was carried out was a regression analysis. This regression analysis examined the correlation between sex and plasma Retinol (ng/ml) levels. As noted, this test demonstrated that there was a significant correlation between the two variables. The second test that was carried out was also a regression analysis. This test instead examined the connection between sex and plasma beta-carotene (ng/ml) in the body. This test demonstrated that there was not a significant connection between the variables. Finally, the third test that was carried out was an independent samples t-test. This test examined whether or not a correlation existed between plasma retinol (ng/ml) levels and Plasma beta-carotene (ng/ml). This research showed that a connection did not exist between these two

A survey of one Financial Market Anomaly (e.g. The Momentum Effect and Essay

A survey of one Financial Market Anomaly (e.g. The Momentum Effect and Market Efficiency) - Essay Example Anomalies specify either market ineffectiveness or insufficiencies in the fundamental asset-pricing model. Contextually, market anomaly is regarded as a price and return miscalculation on financial market which appears to oppose ‘efficient market hypotheses’ (Schwert, 2002). This report is based on the survey of one financial market anomaly named ‘turn-of-the-year’ effect. The objective of the report is thus to recognise and describe the reasons for the occurrence of turn-of-the-year anomaly. Furthermore, the report also aims to understand how this anomaly influences the aspect of market efficiency. Definition of Turn-of-the-Year Anomaly The turn-of-the-year effect defines an outline of increased trading quantity and higher stock prices in the year end (i.e. last week of December) and in the beginning of year (i.e. the first two weeks of January). According to Keim (1983) & Reinganum (1983), majority of irregular revenues generated by small organisations hap pens during the first two weeks of January. This anomaly is recognised as turn-of-the-year effect. In this context, Roll (1983) had theorised that higher unpredictability of little capitalisation stocks cause substantial short term capital losses. Most of the investors hence desire to realise income tax before year end. This stress leads to more sales of stock in the end of year, resulting in substantial minimisation of prices of small capitalisation stocks (Schwert, 2002). Pattern of Turn-of-the-Year Anomaly The study of the Return on Investment (ROI) of US along with other key financial markets constantly discovered robust dissimilarities in stock yielding behaviour across the year. The following figure hereby illustrates the average ROI on monthly basis from 1927 to 2001 in the US: Source: (Stern School of Business, 2012) From the above figure, it can be observed that the returns on investment in January from 1927 to 2001 were considerably higher in the US in comparison to the re turn of other months. This pattern of returns can be observed in the first two weeks of January. To be stated, the turn of the year effect was much more noticeable for small organisations in comparison with big organisations (Stern School of Business, 2012). However, the turn-of-the-year anomaly was learnt to b only existing in those markets where individual income taxes are active. In the similar context, the pattern of the stock markets of Hong Kong did reveal a turn-of-the-year effect owing to the fact that there were no capital gains from taxes. Similarly, in China the capital gains on taxes are considered as uniform which does not offer any kind of inducement for investors during year ends. Thus, turn-of-the-year anomaly is hardly observed in China as well as in Hong Kong (Ji, 2008). Discovery of Turn-of-the-Year Anomaly The seasonal anomaly had been first identified by Sidney B. Watchel in the year 1942. Chronologically, in the year 1976, Rozeff & Kinney had documented the tur n-of-the-year effect in New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) for the first time. They had found that the average yield of

The Navy has an integrity problem in the ranks of its Commanding Essay

The Navy has an integrity problem in the ranks of its Commanding Officers and it needs to be fixed - Essay Example Therefore, this moral dilemma on the character of naval leadership needs to be resolved this early to restore the public’s esteem to their organization. From January to June of this year alone, the naval community as reported by the Navy Times has fired 21 high-ranking officials. The list are composed of several commanding officers, a handful of senior enlisted leaders and an executive officer who were all terminated for reasons ranging from administrative neglect and loss of integrity to lead, to personal misconduct such as sexual harassment, drunkenness, and fraternization, among others. Note that the said officers are not the newly graduated and amateur types; instead, they possess credentials of the experienced, skilled and decorated leaders (â€Å"Commanding Officer†, 2012). This statistics is startling considering that the list only composed of 17 Navy commanding officers in 2010 and soared to 31 in 2011 (â€Å"Navy Commanding†, 2011). The Career Progression Division of the Naval Personnel Command presented a similar data showing an increasing trend of dismissal of commanding officers in the Navy from 1999 to 201 0 citing misconduct, a significant event, unsatisfactory performance over time, and loss of confidence in the officer’s ability to command, as categories. The accused officials were not only relieved from their posts but were â€Å"detached for cause† as well. Although the portion of the pie under the category of personal misconduct is small, it still is significantly high and disquieting (Light, 2012). The above information is essential in viewing the modern shift of the degree of leadership and responsibility in the naval forces. Among all the competent candidates for high ranks, it is noticeable that even the individuals who are inclined to misbehave get the position. The question then lies to the competence and

Please look at attachment (New Media & International Communication) Essay

Please look at attachment (New Media & International Communication) - Essay Example The social media landscapes are positive in providing networks and updates; however, it also tends to be abused by many and takes away from the natural, physical interactions among friends and individuals. The convenience of technology with human interaction is one which is widely used by friends and family members. The interactions include convenience of giving information, planning schedules and getting to know what individuals are doing. Using technology as a form of human interaction has become more convenient than meeting with individuals physically. Remote connections, meeting individuals that normally wouldn’t occur and having continuous updates are some of the changes which are now expected from technology. This has become a substitute for human interaction and makes it more convenient to keep in touch with others through various portals. Everything from mobile technology to social media portals, such as Facebook, provides more interactions that take place remotely and which are easier to be a part of. The limitations of technology, as well as the ease of connecting to others, have been developed because of the main goals of connecting online.

Analysis of internal and external efficiencies of the education system Research Paper

Analysis of internal and external efficiencies of the education system in DRC - Research Paper Example Research problem Being an African, born and schooled there in most of my elementary level, I therefore have an adequate understanding of the educational model used in the region and can therefore explain the discord between the increasing literacy level and the rising rates of unemployment. The African model of education is more theoretical and historical. This enlightens the students on previous facts most of which are of no relevance to the life in the modern day society. Anyone trying to make sense of policy research in education is likely to be struck by the numerous contractions and paradoxes that perplex the field. Even a brief consideration of these problems raises a number of important questions: What contributes to the frequency of contradictions and paradoxes in educational policy? To what extent researches might resolve these matters? Where research cannot provide clear answers, what should be our response to these problems? With ten years teaching experience, I have the audacity to criticize the educational model in Congo, a low income country in Africa. A lot of theories make students fantasize and do not therefore relate the information they obtain in school to solving the daily life challenges. The theoretical aspect of the African model of education begins in the types of examples that teachers give their students during lessons most of which are not drawn from the society. When teachers are not certain of the knowledge they pass to their students, the students handle the knowledge as a school affair which is completely irrelevant once out of school. Literature review Africa is a highly ethicized continent, through historical studies, schools become the first institutions to enlighten the population on the historical injustices thereby breeding or perpetuating the possible ethical tensions in the countries (McCloskey 12). Besides the historical aspect of the education system in the low income countr ies of Africa, the theoretical model of education results in fantasies. Furthermore, Congo is an unstable country with constant civil wars. Coupled with the weak economy, the education sector receives insufficient funds to sustain a constant curriculum upgrade and improvement of the educational model. The Japanese model of education fits the country. In addition, it will help the country produce relevant human resource to fast track the development process of the country. However, the lack of infrastructure and funds and the different level of development compel the implementation of the model to be in bits in the order of relevance (McCloskey 44). Methodology The research will be a qualitative comparison of the education system in the two countries; Japan is a developed country and it is not surprising to note the different educational model between the two countries. The country has an effective government, which invests heavily in the education sector. This implies that the Japan ese academic curriculum is reviewed constantly to keep it abreast with the changing technologies of the time. Constant curriculum review ensures that the knowledge is of relevance to the changes in the society. This is important feature lacks in the Congolese model of

Personal and Professional Ethic Essay Example for Free

Personal and Professional Ethic Essay List 2 examples of legal issues affecting healthcare and describe how you determined your choices to be legal issues. 2. Give 2 examples of ethical issues affecting healthcare and describe how you determined your choices to be ethical issues. 3. Give 2 examples of moral issues affecting healthcare and describe how you determined your choices to be moral issues. 4. Describe the impact your own personal ethics may have on your practice as a healthcare professional. 5. List 3 ideas that you have for keeping your personal and professional ethics separate: . How does diversity (ethnic, social and cultural) play a role in providing patient care for your chosen profession? Unit 9 Project Questions: Part II (NOTE: you may need to refer to chapter 3 and/or Unit 2 for this section) 7. What is the name of the professional organization related to your chosen career? (NOTE: a list of professional organizations can be found in the Code of Ethics and Professional Organizations module in the Reading section of Unit 2) 8. How will your professional Code of Ethics help to guide you in making decisions on-the job? NOTE: a link to your Code of Ethics can be found in the Code of Ethics and Professional Organizations module in the Reading section of Unit 2) 9. How does your professional Code of Ethics differ from the American Medical Association Code of Ethics? 10. Does your professional organization offer a credentialing exam for your career? If so, what is the name of the credential you can receive after passing the exam? 11. For most allied health professionals, a certification can be preferred but is optional. Why is this? 12. Name two healthcare professionals in which a license would be required to practice.

U.S. Health Care System Essay Example for Free

U.S. Health Care System Essay Health care system in the United States is on an unsustainable way and in need of transformation. Even if, it has both private and public insurers like in other countries but the uniqueness of this system is dominant of the private component. The United States spends more on health care than any other nation but the nation is less healthy than the average population in other developed countries. Additionally, many people stay uninsured and do not have access to health care. There is a need for a deep change in the system of health care (Chua, 2006). This paper will identify and evaluate three forces that have affected the development of the health care system in the United States of America. Than, it will speculate whether or not these forces will continue to affect the health care system in the U.S. over the next decade including additional force impacting the health care system of the nation. Finally, it will evaluate the importance of technology in health care. Three Forces That Have Affected the Development of the Health Care System in the United States of America. The development of health care system in the U.S. has been affected by many different forces such social, economy, behavioral, political and technological issues. A very important factor affecting health care system is economy. The economy aspect in health care includes employment, health care cover and costs that allow people to have financial access to healthcare. In such an unstable economy as we have faced recently some employers drop or restrict coverage or prevent eligibility of its employees to continue coverage. Even more, they have a tendency to reduce costs of health care insurance by readjusting the benefits offered or sharing in the cost. Those with low income or those who lost their jobs are left uninsured. Moreover, employer-sponsored healthcare coverage has changed and some employees are no longer offering health care insurance coverage as a benefit. This will continue to be an issue in the health care system if the economy remains in recession (American Medical Association, 2005). In March 2010 the Affordable Care Act (ACA) was signed and supposed to increase quality and affordability of health insurance while reducing costs of health care for individuals and government but still is difficult to estimate if this act is going to bring real changes in health care field (Cembranelli, 2012). Another force affecting health care system in America is a social factor that interacts with the economy. The size and composition of population has a great influence on health services. Since the rate of births is higher than the number of deaths; the population has grown remarkably. Also, the constantly increasing number of immigrants affects the current population of the country. According to the data from by the census bureau, the aging population is healthier and lives longer then previous generations. Their way of live is more beneficial to health; they have more active lifestyles, social activities and cosmetic medicines. Such tendency impacts the health care system. The biomedical advances enhance longevity that leads to longer periods of economic and social dependency, while improving the quality of life. The aging population intensifies a burden on the younger workers and  will result to impact social policies, taxes, politics and life in general. In the same way, fertility, abortion trends, mortality trends affecting life expectancy, infant and maternal mortality impact the development of health care (Wiliams Torrens, 2010). Additional aspects influencing the development of health care systems in the U.S are behavioral factors. Many advances have been made in the field of disease preventions, treatments and lifestyle patterns. The rise of the AIDS woke up individuals to the fact that infectious diseases are still challenging. Controlling infectious disease has become a significant public health issue and is associated with an improvement in living conditions. Challenges in mortality are currently focused on chronic diseases and awareness to fight new outbreaks of infectious diseases play a major part. Threats of biological weapons in war terror, exposure to violence, vehicular accidents, and use of alcohol, drugs and tobacco products as well as infectious agents have an impact on behavior. Sexual behaviors have an impact on the widespread of sexually transmitted diseases resulting an increase in infertility, cancer and other complications. Moreover, intensified stress in daily life, workplace violence, issues in marriage, domestic abuse and many other problems brings breakdowns and deterioration of human immune system and affects morbidity and mortality that are linked to behavior and social interaction. The failure of the society to address social, behavioral and economics causes of disease will continue to affect the development of the healthcare system (Williams Torrens, 2010). How the Forces Will Affect the Health Care System in the United States of America Over the Next Decade, Including Additional Force-Medical Technology. All of the forces that affect the health care in the U.S. will continue over the next decade especially that there is a failure in addressing them. There is a chance that situation may even worsen and new challenges can arise. Even if, improvements of technology constantly increase efficiency, the cost of new tests and treatments will be greater than the savings based on mentioned previously economic, social and behavior factors. Health care will keep getting better in diagnosis and treating diseases lengthening patients  lives and at the same time increasing the number of people requiring care (Adams, Archbold, Munib, New, 2007). The U.S. health care system is dysfunctional and can no longer continue as it currently operates. With or without Affordable Care Act (ACA), there is a need for a deep change. The United States spends more money on health care because a nation is less healthy on the average than the rest of the developed world. The system is dysfunctional and ACA is fast-tracking the process of changes that will be faced by the economic and business challenges by health care organizations. The required adjustments to healthcare organizations operating budgets and methodologies for delivering medicine may become a big issue. Health care organizations will have to go from volume-based reimbursement in medicine based on the number of procedures done or patients seen to a value-based system that will give the same money for every patient regardless of the procedure performed. Health care organizations may have lower income since they will treat more patients. They may face cost-pressure factors such as the overall cost of medical care and the increased incidence of chronic disease, cost transparency and reference pricing, increased government role in paying for care, increased coverage and limited highly skilled medical workforce There is a prediction that forty million more people will be covered nationally, at reimbursement rates below the cost of providing that care (Adams et al., 2007). Among the economic, social and behavioral forces impacting development of the health care system is medical technology that brings a great change in the health care but it raises costs of health care. It impacts economy, organizations, industry as well as patients, insurance beneficiaries and social and governmental policy. Medical technology increases cost in health care on one hand but on the other hand improves diagnosing and treatment. Use of current medical technology allows health care organizations to develop new products and services and this way increase standards of offered services. As new technologies are developed, they bring new ethical and regulatory issues. Issues in technological advances will bring more challenges and affect the development of the health care services bringing  it into the new century (Etheredge, Jones, Lewin, 1996). The Importance of Technology in Health Care. Technology today plays an important role in health care because it improves quality of care. According to Williams and Torrens (2010), technology is the driving force of health care. It helps in the storing and organization of patient records or information and gives access to doctors to medical records. Use of technology in health care allows better and faster diagnosis and treatments. The technology is very beneficial in overcoming communication barriers in health care. It has an impact in so many areas in the healthcare world such as economic, clinical, organization, and industrial impact as well as on patients and insurance beneficiaries, social, government and policy impact. It is a hope for a long, productive life for millions of people but it has to be properly implemented by trained individuals. Health care organizations must ensure that they hire the proper staff capable to implement it while providing security and protection of patients data. Proper implementation of technology allows capturing, track, record and recognizing illnesses quickly and treating them effectively. Technology lets people and communities to stay healthy by providing them access whenever it is needed. Moreover, it brings opportunities to wellness and will also be used to stabilize physiology, modify risky behaviors, design and field snap clinical trials advancing biomedical knowledge and care for individuals with health care challenges. Despite of all benefits that technology brings to health care, today some express a concern that innovation is being stifled, capital is unavailable for technology acquisition, and reimbursement is inadequate (Graham, Estrin, Horvitz, Kohane, Mynatt, 2011). Conclusion Health care system in the United States is struggling with high cost while trying to improve quality and increasing access for the health services. There are social, economy, behavioral, political and technological factors that affect development in health care system in the country. An important  role in this development plays technology that improves quality and efficiency of diagnosis and treatment on one hand but on the other hand increases significantly costs of health care. There is a deep need to transform the health care system by improving the experience of care and the health of populations at the same time reducing costs of health care. REFERENCES Adams, J., Archbold, B. L., Munib, E. L., New, D. (2007). _Healthcare 2015 and U.S. health plan. New roles, new competencies_. Retrieved January 21, 2014, from http://www.healthleadersmedia.com American Medical Association (2005). Socioeconomic Status in Health Reaserch. _The Journal of the American Medical Association, 294_(22), . doi:10.1001/jama.294..22.2879. Cembranelli, F. (). _What are the six forces that affect innovation in healthcare?_ Retrieved January 20, 2014, from http://empreendersaude.com Chua, K. P. (2006, February). _Overview of the U.S. Health Care System_. Retrieved January 20, 2014, from http://amsa.org/AMSA/Libraries/Committee_Docs/HealthCareasystemOvervi ew.sflb.ashx Etheredge, L., Jones, S. B., Lewin, L. (1996). What is driwving health system change? _Health Affairs, 4_, 93-104. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.15.4.93 Graham, S., Estrin, D., Horvitz, E., Kohane, I., Mynatt, E. (2011). _Information Technology Research Chalanges for Healthcare: From Discovery to Delivery_. Retrieved n.d., from http://www.cra.org/ccc/national-priorities/healthcare Wiliams, S. J., Torrens, P. R. (2010). _Introduction to Health Services_ (7  ed.). Mason: Cengage Learning.

Amylase Activity In Germinating Seeds

Amylase Activity In Germinating Seeds Amylase is an enzyme found in the germinating seeds. Imbibition process causes the release of growth plant (gibberelin) which stimulates the synthesis of amylase. Amylase activity is affected by many factors such as temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and the presence of any inhibitors or activators.  [1]  Amylase enzyme in the green bean seeds works best at specific range of temperature. The cotyledons store food for the use of embryo in the form of starch. Amylase enzyme breaks down starch into maltose, a chain of two glucose molecules Maltose then breaks down into glucose. Glucose is used for the growth of plumule and radicle. When this process happens, the seeds are said to undergo germination process. The emergence of plumule and radicle indicate that the seeds have germinated. In germinated seeds, the blue colour of the Benedicts solution change to brick-red precipitate indicating the presence of glucose while maintaining the yellowish-brown colo ur of the iodine solution indicating the absence of starch. However, in non-germinated seeds, the yellowish-brown colour of the iodine solution change to blue black indicating the presence of starch while maintaining the blue colour of the Benedicts solution indicating the absence of glucose. AIM : To investigate the amylase activity during seed germination RESEARCH QUESTION: How does amylase activity affect the rate of seed germination? HYPOTHESIS: The higher the amylase activity, the higher the rate of seed germination which is indicated by the higher changes in length of plumule and radicle. Hence, the area of starch agar that represents the absence of starch is bigger and the concentration of brick-red precipitate is lower indicating the presence of small amount glucose. VARIABLES: Units Range Independent Variable Different condition of the seeds Vary the conditions of the green bean seeds by boiling, soaking and drying Dependent Variable Change in length of radicle and plumule Measure the change in length of radicle and plumule by using the ruler cm Table 1 : The independent and dependent variable of the experiment and method to control. Control variables Units Range The temperature of the incubator Set the temperature of the incubator at 25 °C throughout the experiment  °C -10 110 The time taken for each plate to be left in the incubator Left each plate for 1 week The type of seed used Use the same type of seed which is green been seeds for each sterile starch agar plate The number of seed placed in each plate Place 5 green bean seeds in each of the sterile starch agar plate Table 2: The control variables of the experiment and method to control. MATERIALS AND APPARATUS : APPARATUS Apparatus Quantity Test tube 2 Beaker 2 Ruler 1 Microwave oven 1 Marker 1 Razor blade 1 Incubator 1 Pestle and mortar 1 set Table 3: The list of apparatus. MATERIAL Material Quantity Benedicts solution Some Iodine solution Some Disinfectant Some Distilled water 50 ml Green bean seeds 15 Sterile starch agar plate 3 Table 4: The list of material. PROCEDURE : A. PREPARING DIFFERENT CONDITIONS OF GREEN BEAN SEEDS. Soak 5 green bean seeds in distilled water for 24 hours. Heat 5 green bean seeds in the microwave oven at 35 °C for about 30 minutes. Boil 5 green bean seeds. B. INVESTIGATING THE AMYLASE ACTIVITY OF GREEN BEAN SEEDS. Label 3 sterile starch agar plates with A (boiled green bean seeds), B (soaked green bean seeds) and C (dried green bean seeds) Cut each seeds of different conditions into half to split the cotyledon by using the razor blade. Soak the split seeds into disinfectant solution for 10 minutes for sterilization and then rinse twice using the distilled water. Place 5 boiled green bean seeds in plate A, 5 soaked green bean seeds in B and 5 dried green bean seeds in C by using the forceps. Place all the labeled plates in the incubator at temperature of 25 °C for 1 week. After 1 week, retrieve all the plates. Take out the seeds from plate A and cut the radicle and plumule by using the razor blade. Measure and record the length of radicle and plumule by using the ruler. Pour iodine solution into sterile starch agar plate until it covers the whole agar for 3 minutes and observe the size of the area represents the absence of starch. Transfer the seeds including the plumule and radicle into the mortar. Put a spoonful of sand and 10 ml of distilled water into the mortar. Grind the mixture using the pestle until it becomes watery mixture. Pour some of the watery mixture obtained into a test tube and add 2 drops of Benedicts solution to test for the presence of glucose. Note the colour changes and record the data obtained. Record all the measurement and observation in a table. Repeat steps 7-14 for plate B and C. DATA COLLECTION : QUALITATIVE DATA Plate Condition of the seeds Observation A Boiled green bean seeds B Soaked green bean seeds C Dried green beans seeds Table 5: Observation on the change in the colour of iodine solution and Benedicts solution. QUANTITATIVE DATA Plate A (boiled green bean seeds) Plate B (soaked green bean seeds) Plate C (dried green beans seeds) Change in length of the radicle, cm ( ± 0.05) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Change in length of the plumule, cm ( ± 0.05) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Table 6: The change in length of the radicle and plumule.

Angels in America Essay -- Kushner Angels in America Essays

Angels in America Everyone has his or her own personal faults in life. Some are looked down upon more for their issues than others are. Homosexual relationships are considered sacrilegious and unethical, so much that we scrutinize persons having those relations. We as a society should not look down upon individuals whose sexual preference is different from our own. The 80's were a time of economic growth and global power. It is also the setting for Tony Kushner's play, "Angels in America". In Kushner's play it was at time of gay revelation. Reagan's reforms and policies gave homosexual people the power and courage to be more open sexually. Throughout this play, "coming out", is a very new evolution, one that Kushner bases his play on. In the story, many of his characters are homosexual, and the truth about their sexual preferences comes out. Roy Cohn is a successful lawyer in New York, who is dying of AIDS because of his sexual relationships. He keeps his love relationship separate from his professional life for the simple fact that if he were exposed to the wrong people it could damage his reputation. This information could be used against him in court. He lies to people, telling them he has cancer to conceal his homosexuality and prevent them from knowing about his sickness. Roy is facing disbarment and if they knew he was gay, he would easily be barred from being a lawyer. Roy tells his doctor, Henry, that "Roy Cohn is not a homosexual man. Roy Cohn is a heterosexual man, who fucks around w... ...er sexual preference, than we as society can accept this kind of relationship. The graphic details Kushner describes about living and dying with the AIDS disease, gives the audience both the view of a horrifying disease and hope for the future. In the beginning of this play, there is a feeling that homosexuality is despised, but as the play moves to the second part the mood changes. It changes to a very relaxed, almost understanding, and picture of how homosexuality is viewed. In contemporary America, homosexuality is becoming accepted as a sexual preference. Many interest groups, organizations and gay people have strived for this for years. It is not our right to judge others because of what sexual preference they choose, but it is our God given right to be proud of that choice.

Analysis of Little Red Riding Hood :: Little Red Riding Hood

Analysis of Little Red Riding Hood  Ã‚   The psychologist Sigmund Freud created many theories on how people are and why they do the things they do. His psychoanalytic theories are used today to for a better understanding of and to analyze literature. Freud’s three key zones of mental process are the id, the ego and the superego. The id is one of the most important of the three when talking about â€Å"Little Red Riding Hood† by Charles Perrault. The author tries to show that being impulsive and basically giving in to your id is not the best way to live one’s life.   In the beginning of â€Å"Little Red Riding Hood†, the little girl is happily skipping through the forest. â€Å"†¦she met a wolf, who wanted to eat her†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Stories, 1066) and proceeds to have a friendly conversation with him. This is her first mistake. Being young and uninformed about the ways of the world, she thinks it is perfectly normal to talk to a big, scary wolf. â€Å"The poor child did not know how dangerous it is to chatter away to wolves†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Stories, pg. 1066). Since the little girl is young and impressionable, she jumps on her impulses to talk to any stranger she comes across. She does not think of what could come of her informing the wolf of her every move. She is not concerned with what might happen due to her irrational choice of speaking with a similarly irrational wolf.   The wolf is also guilty of giving in to his amoral desires. When he first sees the little girl, he â€Å"†¦wanted to eat her but did not dare to because there were woodcutters working nearby.† (Stories, pg. 1066) He refrained from giving into his impulses only because he was afraid of being hurt by the people nearby. However, the wolf did not stay hungry for long. Giving into his animalistic desires, he beat the girl to her grandmother’s house and proceeded to eat her. He could not ignore his desires anymore. The wolf thinks with his stomach and not his mind. â€Å"The id is, in short, the source of all our aggressions and desires.† (HCAL, pg. 130)   The wolf shows the fundamental characteristics of the id. He relies on his aggression and desires to obtain what he wants.    At the end of the story, the irrationality of the main characters comes to an all time high.

F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby - The Power of Money Essay

In the preface to Major Barbara, the playwright George Bernard Shaw observes that "money is the most important thing in the world--it represents health, strength, honor, generosity and beauty," but, the poet continues, "it also destroys people as certainly as it fortifies and dignifies others" (Shaw 28). Shaw recognized that many people look toward money, the ultimate representation of materialism, in search of the power that enables them to live. But, money can play many parts in the drama of life. It can represent or give the illusion of wealth, prestige, nobility, and power. Those that seek to harness its powers must also strive to conquer its ability to destroy and corrupt. In F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby, the repeated image of money, no matter in what form or through whom it is portrayed, is used to such an extent that it becomes central to the development of the story. The abstract idea of money can be expressed in many ways. Perhaps the most straightforward way is through the acquisition of grand possessions. In the first chapter of the novel, Nick, the first-...

A “Janner” in the “smoke” Essay

As I step out of the carriage at Paddington station I feel a sensation that I feel every time I come back to this stunning and enchanting city that I love so much. The red telephone boxes, black taxis and the marvellous architecture. This visit I’m staying in one of the many travel inns in London, this one is situated the other side of the tower bridge which is a bit different to the kind of hotel that I normally stay in when I’m visiting London but this is no normal visit. This visit I am going to be a tourist and experience London from a different viewpoint. Now I have to find a taxi and drop off my bags. The taxi driver finds the hotel effortlessly and I am soon at reception checking in. My room is large and airy, decorated in standard â€Å"travel inn† style. I drop my bags and go down to the bar to find my friends, as tonight we are visiting the very popular Maxwell’s restaurant in Covent Garden. Well all I can say for the meal is superb! Burgers and chips may not sound very nice but they’ve ruined its greasy reputation. Now back in my hotel room I’m making my self a coffee from the mini bar and am running myself a pleasantly hot bath which I will lay in for a couple of hours. Today is Saturday and I will be visiting the famous Oxford Street with its many shops. The first one on my Itinerary will be Hamly’s toyshop, which I think is incredible and great for children of all ages! Also on this magnificent street is the Warner bros. Shop and Selfridges. Later on in the day I will stroll through St. James Park, which links on to Buckingham palace, any trip to London, shouldn’t be without this relaxing experience. Tremendous. Fantastic. In St. James Park the squirrels have become so used to humans that one came and ate out of my hand! I was astonished. Tonight I’m planning on staying in, ordering a pizza and watching the television, in order to re charge my batteries ready for another strenuous day. Its 7:00am and I’ve just been woken up by some couple next door having a row and I can’t get back to sleep so I’m going to set out earlier than expected go on a tour bus round main London. I’m on the tour bus now and its great. There are more people than I’d thought on the tour but most of them are foreigners. So far we’ve passed St. Paul’s Cathedral, Piccadilly Circus, Trafalgar square and many more magical and momentous tourist attractions. Next I will be visiting Covent Garden to do a spot of light shopping and watch the performers. Having a hot chocolate and a bun at a small coffee shop in Covent Garden and watching a street performer on a BMX doing flatland tricks that I didn’t think were possible. The one thing that I have noticed that all these performers have in common is that all use juggling in there shows whether they do it on bikes, with chain saws or other hazardous objects. In these 2 days I have already spent à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½120 on presents for other people! Toys, Clothes or food if I’ve seen it I’ve brought it. Tonight I’m having dinner in the oddly shaped building across the road from my hotel, which every time I walk pass I smell the most stunning smells ever. Spices and herbs, sweet smells of the elegant deserts and everyone who comes out, comes out smiling. Today is the day that I have been most looking forward to. Today I’m going to Madame Tussauds. The creepy looking figures look like they are alive. But first I have to wait in the long queue of anxious and restless people. There is a sign in front which says,† 2 HOURS FROM HERE†, which sounds ridiculous. Madame Tussauds. What can say it was worth the wait, which only came to an hour in the end. It smelt strange and the rooms were hot and sticky inside. Some Japanese tourist asked me to take their picture as they stood next to the Queen and prince Philip. But I fancy having mine taken with Madonna. You could spend all day here but unfortunately I don’t have that much time left. I’ve been lucky enough to secure some tickets to watch Chelsea F.C play at home so it is off to the station to catch the train to Stamford Bridge before catching the late train home to Plymouth. What will I remember most about this different trip to London? As a tourist I see how fast the city moves, how dusty, how sticky and how lonely city can be when you are on your own!

Kant and Equality Essay

Some readers of this essay will have become impatient by now; because they believe that the problem that perplexes me has been definitively solved by Immanuel Kant. It is certainly true that Kant held strong opinions on this matter. In an often-quoted passage, he reports a personal conversion from elitism: â€Å"I am myself a researcher by inclination. I feel the whole thirst for knowledge and the eager unrest to move further on into it, also satisfaction with each acquisition. There was a time when I thought this alone could constitute the honor of humanity and despised the know nothing rabble. Rousseau set me straight. This delusory superiority vanishes, I learn to honor men, and I would find myself more useless than a common laborer if I did not believe this observation could give everyone a value which restores the rights of humanity. †What Kant learned from Rousseau was the proposition that the basis of human equality is the dignity that each human person possesses in virtue of the capacity for autonomy (moral freedom). This moral freedom has two aspects, the capacity to set ends for oneself according to one’s conception of what is good, and the capacity to regulate one’s choice of ends and of actions to achieve one’s ends by one’s conception of what morality requires. According to Kant’s psychology, brute animals are determined to act as instinct inclines them, but a rational being has the power to interrogate the inclinations it feels, to raise the question what it is reasonable to do in given circumstances, and to choose to do what reason suggests even against all inclinations. The question arises whether Kant’s psychology is correct, or remotely close to correct. Perhaps something like the conflict between conscience and inclination is experienced by social animals other than humans. Perhaps the freedom that Kant imputes to human on metaphysical grounds can be shown to be either empirically nonexistent or illusory. For our purposes we can set these questions aside and simply presume that the human psychological complexity envisaged by Kant does describe capacity we possess, whether or not it is shared with other animals. My question is whether Kant’s characterization, if it was correct, would have the normative implication she draws from it. It might seem that the Kantian picture helps to show how moral freedom is arrange concept, which does not significantly admit of degrees. If one has the capacity to set an end for oneself, one does not possess this freedom to a lesser extent just because one cannot set fancy ends, or because other persons can set fancier ends. If one has the power to regulate choice of ends by one’s sense of what is morally right, one does not possess this freedom to a lesser extent because one cannot understand sophisticated moral considerations, or because other persons can understand more sophisticated moral considerations. Moreover, one might hold that it is having or lacking the freedom which is important, not having or lacking the capacity to exercise the freedom in fancy ways. But the old worries lurk just around the corner. The Kantian view is that there are indeed capacities that are crucial for the ascription of fundamental moral status that do not vary in degree. One either has the capacity or one does not, and that’s that. If the crucial capacities have this character, then the problem of how to draw a no arbitrary line on a continuum and hold all beings on one side of the line full persons and all beings on the other side of the line lesser beings does not arise. The line separating persons and nonpersons will be non arbitrary, and there will be no basis for further differentiation of moral status. One is either a person or not, and all persons are equal. Consider the capacity to set an end, to choose a goal and decide on an action to achieve it. One might suppose that all humans have this capacity except for the permanently comatose and the anencephalic. So all humans are entitled to a fundamental equal moral status. This view is strengthened by noting that there are other capacities that do admit of degrees that interact with the no degree capacities. Individuals who equally have the capacity to set an end may well differ in the quality of their end-setting performances. Some are able to set ends more reasonably than others. But these differences in performance do not gainsay the fundamental equal capacity. It is just that having a high or low level of associated capacities enables or impedes successful performance. So the fact that individuals differ in their abilities to do arithmetic and more complex mathematical operations that affect their ability to make rational choices should have no tendency to obscure the more basic and morally status-conferring equality in the capacity of each person to make choices. In response: First of all, if several of these no degree capacities were relevant to moral status, one must possess all to be at the top status, and some individuals possess more and others fewer of the relevant capacities, a problem of hierarchy, though perhaps a manageable one, would emerge anew. More important, I doubt there is a plausible no degree capacity that can do the work this argument assigns to it. Take the capacity to set ends and make choices. Consider a being that has little brain power, but over the course of its life can set just a few ends and make just a few choices based on considering two or three simple alternatives. It sets one end (lunch, now) per decade three times over the course of its life. If there is a capacity to set ends, period, not admitting of degrees, this being possesses it. The point is that it is clearly not merely the capacity to set ends, but something more complex that renders a being a person in our eyes. What matters is whether or not one has the capacity to set sensible ends and to pick among alternative end at a reasonable pace, sorting through complex considerations that bear on the choice of ends and responding in a rational way to these considerations. But this capacity, along with any similar or related capacity that might be urged as a substitute for it, definitely admits of degrees. The same point would hold if we pointed to free will or moral autonomy as the relevant person-determining capacity. It is not the ability to choose an end on ground of consideration for moral considerations merely, but the ability to do this in a nuanced and fine-grained responsive way, that is plausibly deemed to entitle a being to personhood status. In general, we single out rationality, the ability to respond appropriately to reasons, as the capacity that is pertinent to personhood, by itself or in conjunction with related abilities, and rationality so understood admits of degrees. Kant may well have held that the uses of reason that are required in order to have a well-functioning conscience that can tell right from wrong are not very sophisticated and are well within the reach of all non crazy non feebleminded humans. Ordinary intelligence suffices. His discussions of applying the categorical imperative test certainly convey this impression. But commentators tend to agree that there is no simple all-purpose moral test that easily answers all significant moral questions. Thus Christine Korsgaard cautions that the categorical imperative test is not a â€Å"Geiger counter† for detecting the presence of moral duties, and Barbara Herman observes that the application of the categorical imperative test to cases cannot be a mechanical procedure but relies on prior moral understanding by the agent and on the agent’s capacity to make relevant moral discriminations and judgments and to characterize her own proposed maxims perspicuously. These comments confirm what should be clear in any event: Moral problems can be complex and difficult, and there is no discernible upper bound to the complexity of the reasoning required to master and perhaps solve them. But suppose I do the best I can with my limited cognitive resources, I make a judgment as to what is morally right, however misguided, and I am conscientiously resolved to do what I take to be morally right. The capacity to do what is right can be factored into two components, the ability to decide what is right and the ability to dispose oneself to do what one thinks is right. One might hold the latter capacity to be the true locus of human dignity and worth. Resisting temptation and doing what one thinks is right is noble and admirable even if one’s conscience is a broken thermometer. However, one might doubt that being disposed to follow one’s conscience is unambiguously good when one’s conscience is seriously in error. For one thing, moral flaws such as a lazy indisposition to hard thinking and an obsequious deference toward established power and authority might play a large role in fixing the content of one’s judgments of conscience. A conceited lack of healthy skepticism about one’s cognitive powers might be a determinant of one’s strong disposition to do whatever one thinks to be right. Even if Kant is correct that the good will, the will directed unfailingly at what is truly right, has an absolute and unconditional worth, it is doubtful that the would-be good will, a will directed toward what it takes to be right on whatever flimsy or solid grounds appeal to it, has such worth. Take an extreme case: Suppose a particular person has a would-be good will that is always in error. This could be strong or righteous, so that the agent always does what he thinks is right, or weak and corrupt, so that the agent never does what she thinks is right. If the will is always in error, the odds of doing the right thing are increased if the would-be good will is weak and corrupt. Some might value more highly on consequential grounds the weak and corrupt erroneous will, even though the strong and righteous invariably erroneous will always shines like a jewel in its own right. And some might hold that quite aside from the expected consequences, acting on a seriously erroneous judgment of right is inherently of lesser worth than acting on correct judgment of right. Even if the disposition to do what one thinks morally right is unassailable, its purported value does not provide a sound basis for asserting the equal worth and dignity of human persons. The capacity to act conscientiously itself varies empirically across persons like any other valued capacity. A favorable genetic endowment and favorable early socialization experiences bestow more of this capacity on some persons and less on others. If we think of an agent’s will as disposed more or less strongly to do what she conscientiously believes to be right, different individuals with the same disposition will experience good and bad luck in facing temptations that exceed their resolve. Even if we assume that agents always have freedom of the will, it will be difficult to different degrees for different persons to exercise their free will as conscience dictates. Moreover, individuals will vary in their psychological capacities to dispose their will to do what conscience dictates. One might retreat further to the claim that all persons equally can try to dispose their will to do what is right, even if they will succeed in this enterprise to different degrees. But the ability to try is also a psychological capacity that we should expect would vary empirically across persons. At times Kant seems to appeal to epistemic grounds in reasoning from the goodness of the good will to the equal worth and dignity of all human persons. We don’t know what anyone’s inner motivations are, even our own, so the judgment that anyone is firmly disposed to do what is right can never be confirmed. But surely the main issue is whether humans are so ordered that we ought to accord them fundamental equal moral status, not whether, given our beliefs, it is reasonable for us to act as if they are so ordered. The idea that there is a threshold of rational agency capacity such that any being with a capacity above the threshold is a person equal in fundamental moral status to all other persons prompts a worry about how to identify this threshold non arbitrarily. It might seem that only the difference between nil capacity and some capacity would preclude the skeptical doubt that the line set at any positive level of capacity could just as well have been set higher or lower. Regarding the proposal to identify any above-zero capacity as qualifying one for personhood, we imagine a being with barely a glimmer of capacity to perceive the good and the right and to dispose its will toward their attainment. The difference between none and some might be infinitesimal, after all. However, a threshold need not be razor-thin. Perhaps there is a line below which beings with rational capacities in this range are definitely not persons and a higher level such that all beings with capacities above this level are definitely persons. Beings with rational capacities that fall in the middle range or gray area between these levels are near-persons. The levels can be set sufficiently far apart that the difference between scoring at the lower and the higher levels is undeniably of moral significance. But the difference between the rational capacities of the beings just above the higher line, call them marginal persons, and the beings at the upper end of the scale who have saintly genius capacities, is not thereby shown to be insignificant. At the lower end we might imagine persons like the villains depicted in the Dirty Harry Clint Eastwood movies. These unfortunates are not shown as having moral capacities which they are flouting, but rather as bad by nature, and perhaps not entitled to full human rights. No doubt this is a crass outlook, but the question remains whether the analysis we can offer of the basis for human equality generates a refutation of it. Suppose someone asserts that the difference between the rational agency capacities of the most perceptive saints and the most unreflective and animalistic villains defines a difference in fundamental moral status that is just as important for morality as the difference between the rational agency capacities of near-persons and marginal persons. What mistake does this claim embody? COMMENTS ON KANT’S ETHICAL THEORY Because we so commonly take it for granted that moral values are intimately connected with the goal of human well-being or happiness, Kant’s insistence that these two concepts are absolutely independent makes it difficult to grasp his point of view and easy to misunderstand it. The following comments are intended to help the you to avoid the most common misunderstandings and appreciate the sort of outlook that characterizes what Kant takes to be the heart of the ethical life. Kant’s ethical theory is often cited as the paradigm of a deontological theory. Although the theory certainly can be seriously criticized, it remains probably the finest analysis of the bases of the concepts of moral principle and moral obligation. Kant’s endeavor to ground moral duty in the nature of the human being as essentially a rational being marks him as the last great Enlightenment thinker. In spite of the fact that his critical philosophy in epistemology and metaphysics brought an end to The Age of Reason, in ethics his attempt to derive the form of any ethical duty from the very nature of a rational being is the philosophical high water mark of the Enlightenment’s vision of humanity as essentially and uniquely rational. What Kant aims to provide is a â€Å"metaphysics of morals† in the sense of an analysis of the grounds of moral obligation in the nature of a rational being. In other words, Kant aims to deduce his ethical theory purely by a priori reasoning from the concept of what it is to be a human person as a rational agent. The fact that people have the faculty of being able to use reason to decide how to act expresses the fundamental metaphysical principle -the basis or foundation in the nature of reality- on which Kant’s ethical theory is erected. Kant begins his treatise, The Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals with the famous dramatic sentence: â€Å"Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good without qualification, except a good will. † 1. What does Kant mean by â€Å"good without qualification†? Obviously people try to seek and avoid many different sorts of things; those things which they seek they call â€Å"good,† while those they try to avoid, they call â€Å"bad†. These â€Å"goods† which people seek may be divided into those which are sought as means to some further end and those which they seek as good as ends in themselves. Obviously some things may be â€Å"good† as means to one end and â€Å"bad† as means to some other end. Different persons, motivated by different ends, will thus find different things â€Å"good† and â€Å"bad† (relative to their different ends). More food is â€Å"good† to a starving man, but it is â€Å"bad† to one overweight. In order for something to be good â€Å"without qualification† it must not be merely â€Å"good† as means to one end but â€Å"bad† as means to some other end. It must be sought as good totally independently of serving as a means to something else; it must be â€Å"good in-itself. † Furthermore, while one thing may be good as means relative to a particular end, that â€Å"end† becomes a â€Å"means† relative to some other â€Å"end†. So a college diploma may be sought as â€Å"good† as a means for the end of a higher-paying job. And a higher-paying job may be â€Å"good† as a means to increased financial security; and increased financial security may be â€Å"good† as a means to obtaining the necessities of life as well as a few of its luxuries. However, if we seek A only for the sake of B, and B only for the sake of C, etc. , then there is never a justification for seeking A at the beginning of such a series unless there is something at the end of that series which we seek as a â€Å"good in-itself† not merely as means to some further end. Such an â€Å"ultimate† end would then be an â€Å"absolute† rather than a â€Å"relative† good. Kant means that a good will is â€Å"good without qualification† as such an absolute good in-itself, universally good in every instance and never merely as good to some yet further end. 2. Why is a â€Å"good will† the only thing which is universally absolutely good? Kant’s point is that to be universally and absolutely good, something must be good in every instance of its occurrence. He argues that all those things which people call â€Å"good† (including intelligence, wit, judgment, courage, resolution, perseverance, power, riches, honor, health, and even happiness itself) can become â€Å"extremely bad and mischievous if the will which is to make use of them†¦ is not good. † In other words, if we imagine a bad person (i. e. one who willed or wanted to do evil), who had all of these so-called â€Å"goods† (intelligence, wit, etc. ), these very traits would make only that much worse his will to do what is wrong. (We would get the â€Å"criminal master-mind† of the comic books. ) Even â€Å"health† often also cited as a â€Å"good in- itself† may serve to make a person insensitive and indifferent to the lack of good health in others. 3. Isn’t â€Å"happiness† such a universal, absolute good in-itself? Kant answers clearly, â€Å"No. † However, many philosophers (the ones we call â€Å"eudaemonists†) have assumed the obvious answer to be â€Å"Yes. † All ancient eudaemonistic ethical theories as well as modern utilitarian theories virtually define â€Å"happiness† as the absolute end of all ethical behavior. Such eudaemonistic ethical theories are attractive because of the fact that they make it easy to answer the question â€Å"Why should I do what is morally right? † For any eudaemonistic theory the answer will always be â€Å"Because the morally right action is always ultimately in the interest of your own happiness. † Since these theories generally assume that people really are motivated by a desire for their own happiness, their only problem is to show that the morally right action really does serve as the best means to obtain the end of happiness. Once you are led to see this, so such theories assume, the question â€Å"Why should I do what is morally right? † is automatically answered. Kant totally rejects this eudaemonistic way of ethical theorizing; he calls decisions made according to such a calculation of what produces your own happiness â€Å"prudential† decisions and he distinguishes them sharply from ethical decisions. This is not because Kant thinks we are not motivated by a desire for happiness, in fact like the ancient philosophers, he takes it for granted that we are; however, such motivation cannot be that which makes an action ethically right or wrong. The fact that an action might lead to happiness cannot be the grounds of moral obligation. Kant regards the notion of â€Å"happiness† as both too indefinite and too empirical to serve as the grounds for moral obligation – why we ought to do something. In the first place it is â€Å"too indefinite† because all people have very different sorts of talents, tastes and enjoyments which mean in effect that one person’s happiness may be another person’s misery. This is because the concept is â€Å"empirical† in the sense that the only way you can know whether what you seek will actually serve to bring you happiness is by experience. As Kant points out, â€Å"†¦ it is impossible that the most clear-sighted [man] should frame to himself a definite conception of what he really wills in this†¦. † Since we cannot know a priori before an action whether it really will be conducive to our happiness (because the notion is so indefinite that even the most clear-sighted amongst us cannot know everything that must form part of his own happiness) the desire for our own happiness cannot serve as a motive to determine our will to do this or that action. Moreover, Kant observes that even â€Å"†¦ the general well-being and contentment with one’s condition that is called happiness, can inspire pride, and often presumption, if there is not a good will to correct the influence of these on the mind†¦. † In other words happiness cannot be good without qualification for if we imagine it occurring in a person totally devoid of the desire to do what is right, it could very well lead to all sorts of immoral actions. 4. What does Kant mean by a â€Å"good will†? To act out of a â€Å"good will† for Kant means to act out of a sense of moral obligation or â€Å"duty†. In other words, the moral agent does a particular action not because of what it produces (its consequences) in terms of human experience, but because he or she recognizes by reasoning that it is morally the right thing to do and thus regards him or herself as having a moral duty or obligation to do that action. One may of course as an added fact get some pleasure or other gain from doing the right thing, but to act morally, one does not do it for the sake of its desirable consequences, but rather because one understands that it is morally the right thing to do. In this respect Kant’s view towards morality parallels the Christian’s view concerning obedience to God’s commandments, according to which the Christian obeys God’s commandments simply because God commands them, not for the sake of rewards in heaven after death or from fear of punishment in hell. In a similar way, for Kant the rational being does what is morally right because he recognizes himself as having a moral duty to do so rather than for anything he or she may get out of it. 5. When does one act from a motive of doing one’s duty? Kant answers that we do our moral duty when our motive is determined by a principle recognized by reason rather than the desire for any expected consequence or emotional feeling which may cause us to act the way we do. The â€Å"will† is defined as that which provides the motives for our actions. Obviously many times we are motivated by specific desires or emotions. I may act the way I do from a feeling of friendship for a particular individual, or from desire for a particular consequence. I may also be motivated by particular emotions of fear, or envy, or pity, etc. When I act in these ways, I am motivated by a desire for a particular end; in Kant’s vocabulary I am said to act out of â€Å"inclination. † Insofar as an action is motivated by inclination, the motive to do it is contingent upon the desire for the particular end which the action is imagined to produce. Thus as different rational agents might have different inclinations, there is no one motive from inclination common to all rational beings. Kant distinguishes acts motivated by inclination from those done on principle. For example someone may ask why I did a certain thing, and point out that it brought me no gain, or perhaps even made life a bit less pleasant; to which I might reply, â€Å"I know I do not stand to gain by this action, but I do it because of the principle of the thing. † For Kant, this sort of state of mind is the essence of the moral consciousness. When I act on principle the sole factor determining my motive is that this particular action exemplifies a particular case falling under a general law or â€Å"maxim. â€Å" For Kant the mental process by which the actor understands that a particular case falls under a certain principle is an exercise in â€Å"reasoning,† or to be more precise, what Kant called â€Å"practical reason,† reason used as a guide to action. (â€Å"Pure Reason† is reason used to attain certainty, or what Kant called â€Å"scientific knowledge. â€Å") Since to have moral worth an action must be done on principle, and to see that a certain principle applies to a particular action requires the exercise of reason, only rational beings can be said to behave morally. 6. Why does Kant believe that to have moral worth an action must be done on principle rather than inclination? Kant’s argument here may seem strange to the contemporary outlook, for it assumes that everything in nature is designed to serve a purpose. Now it is an obvious fact that human beings do have a faculty of â€Å"practical reason,† reason applied to the guidance of actions. (Kant is of course fully aware the people often fail to employ this faculty; i. e. they act non-rationally (without reason) or even irrationally (against what reason dictates); but he intends that his ethical theory is normative, prescribing how people ought to behave, rather than descriptive of how they actually do behave.) If everything in nature serves some purpose then the faculty of practical reason must have some purpose. Kant argues that this purpose cannot be merely the attainment of some specific desired end, or even the attainment of happiness in general, for if it were, it would have been far better for nature simply to have endowed persons with an instinct to achieve this end, as is the case with the non- rational animals. Therefore, the fact that human beings have a faculty of practical reason cannot be explained by claiming that it allows them to attain some particular end. So the fact that reason can guide our actions, but cannot do so for the sake of achieving some desired end, leads Kant to the conclusion that the function of practical reason must be to allow humans as rational beings to apply general principles to particular instances of action, or in other words to engage in moral reasoning as a way of determining one’s moral obligation: what is the â€Å"right† action to do. Thus we act morally only when we act rationally to apply a moral principle to â€Å"determine† the motive of our action. 7. Do all persons have the same moral duties? According to Kant only rational beings can be said to act morally. Reason for Kant (as for all the Enlightenment thinkers) is the same for all persons; in other words there isn’t a poor man’s reason versus a rich man’s reason or a white man’s reason versus a black man’s reason. All persons are equal as potentially rational beings. Therefore, if reason dictates that one person, in a particular situation, has a moral duty to do a particular thing, then any person, in that same situation, would equally well have a duty to do that same thing. In this sense Kant’s reasoning parallels the way in which stoicism led Roman lawyers to the conclusion that all citizens are equal before the law. Thus Kant is a moral â€Å"absolutist† in the sense that all persons have the same moral duties, for all persons are equal as rational beings. But this â€Å"absolutism† does not mean that Kant holds that our moral duties are not relative to the situation in which we find ourselves. Thus it is quite possible for Kant to conclude that in one particular situation I may have a duty to keep my promise, but in another situation (in which, for example, keeping a promise conflicts with a higher duty) I may equally well be morally obligated to break a promise. 8. Why is it that actions done for the sake of some end cannot have moral worth? Since what one’s moral duties are in a particular situation are the same for all persons, one’s moral duties must be independent of the particular likes and dislikes of the moral agent. Now any action which is motivated by the desire for some particular end presupposes that the agent has the desire for that end. However, from the simple concept of a â€Å"rational being† it is not possible to deduce that any particular rational being would have any particular desired ends. Most people, of course, desire to seek pleasure and avoid pain, but there is no logical contradiction involved in the notion of a â€Å"rational being who does not desire pleasure† or perhaps who desires pain. Thus reason does not dictate that any particular rational being has any particular end. But if the desire for a particular end gave an action its moral worth, then only those rational beings who happened in fact to desire that end would regard such actions as â€Å"good,† while those that desired to avoid such an end, would regard the action as â€Å"bad. † (Thus for example eudaemonistic theories which assume the end of achieving happiness is what gives an action its moral value, would serve to induce only those beings who happened to have the desire for happiness to behave morally. For those rational beings who happened to desire to avoid happiness, there would be no incentive to behave morally and what appears â€Å"good† to the happiness-seeker will appear positively â€Å"bad† to one who seeks to avoid happiness. ) But, as we have seen above, Kant’s absolutism reaches the conclusion that moral obligation is the same for all persons. Thus the ground of moral obligation, what makes an action a moral duty, cannot lie in the end which that act produces. 9. What does reason tell us about the principle that determines the morally dutiful motive? Since Kant has ruled out the ends (i. e. the â€Å"consequences†) which an act produces as well as any motive but those determined by the application of principle as determining moral duty, he is faced now with the task of deriving the â€Å"fundamental principles† of his ethical theory solely from the concept of what it is to be a rational being. He now argues (in a very obscure manner) that from this notion of what is demanded by being rational, he can deduce that it would be irrational to act on any principle which would not apply equally to any other actor in the same situation. In other words, Kant claims that reason dictates that the act we are morally obligated to do is one which is motivated by adherence to a principle which could, without inconsistency, be held to apply to any (and all) rational agents. This fundamental ethical principle, which is commonly called â€Å"The Categorical Imperative,† Kant summarizes with the statement that â€Å"I am never to act otherwise than so that I could also will that my maxim become a universal law. † Kant’s claim that Reason demands the moral agent to act on a universal law thus in many ways parallels Jesus’ dictum that God commands that those who love Him obey â€Å"The Golden Rule. † 10. What is a â€Å"categorical imperative†? Any statement of moral obligation which I make the principle of my action (my â€Å"maxim† in Kant’s vocabulary), in the context of a specific situation, constitutes an â€Å"imperative. † I might, in such a situation, choose to act on a statement of the form, â€Å"If I desire some specific end (e. g. happiness, maximum pleasure, power, etc. ), then I ought to do such and such an action. † In doing so I would be acting on what Kant calls â€Å"a hypothetical imperative. † However, Kant has already ruled out ends as the grounds for moral obligation; thus hypothetical imperatives cannot serve as the basis for determining my moral duty. However, if I act on a principle which has the form, â€Å"In circumstances of such and such a character, I ought to.